Forestry Export

@incollection{citeulike:4139368, abstract = {Foresters and other resource managers have used aerial photographs to help manage resources since the late 1920s. As discussed in chapter 1, however, it was not until the mid-1940s that their use became common. Obtaining photographic coverage was always a problem. For many areas of the world, reasonably complete coverage did not exist until after World War II. In addition, aerial photographs were generally not used stereoscopically for forest applications or as bases for sampling frames until the 1950s although field application of stereoscopic techniques often preceded formal documentation by ten to fifteen years. After World War II, aerial photography was incorporated into the development of forest type maps, using the various plotters that had been used for military applications during the war. Initially, these type maps were often considered only as an ancillary management tool and were seldom used for broad-scale forest surveys. One early use of aerial photographs in forestry was to classify forest stands by attributes such as land classification (Aldrich, 1953), forest types (Sandor, 1955), and stand volume (Aldrich and Norick, 1969). Timber stratificatioIl: (Bickford, 1961; Moessner, 1963) and crown closure (Moessner, 1949) were important attributes used in estimating stand volumes. Aerial photographic interpretation guides (e.g., Avery, 1957) and training kits (e.g., Moessner, 1960) emerged for teaching new forest photointerpreters skills in forest management and inventories. Some of the more sophisticated skills included parallax displacement applications, such as the measurement of gradient (Moessner and Choate, 1964) and tree heights linked to aerial stand volume tables which provided estimates of stand volumes (Moessner, 1957; Allison and Breadon, 1960; Pope, 1961; Haack, 1963). Special studies of the use of low-oblique aerial photographs for forest inventories were also conducted (Anderson, 1956). This chapter reviews photographic interpretation in forestry, building on material presented in the background and basic chapters, especially chapter 5. After a brief look at the types of space and aerial photography that have been and are being employed in forestry, the discussion addresses forest classification, including type, species, size, and density; factors in stand delineation and mapping; and a variety of applications, including forest inventory, insect and disease damage assessment, recreation, roads and trails, regeneration surveys, ecosystem classification, and urban forestry}, address = {Bethesda, MD}, author = {Lund, Gyde H. and Befort, William A. and Brickell, James E. and Ciesla, William M. and Collins, Elisabeth C. and Czaplewski, Raymond L. and Disperati, Attilio A. and Douglass, Robert W. and Dull, Charles W. and Greer, Jerry D. and Hershey, Rachel R. and Labau, Vernon J. and Lachowski, Henry and Murtha, Peter A. and Nowak, David J. and Roberts, Marc A. and Pierre and Singh, Ashbindu and Winterberger, Kenneth C.}, booktitle = {Manual of Photographic Interpretation}, chapter = {11}, citeulike-article-id = {4139368}, citeulike-linkout-0 = {http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/32616}, comment = {From http://www.citeulike.org/group/7954/article/4035927: Lund and others (1997) provide a comprehensive review of aerial photography for forestry applications. The following attributes can be measured with varying degrees of success from aerial photography at the appropriate resolution and acquisition season. * Land cover \# Forest v. nonforest \# Existing vegetation * Forest stand conditions \# Stand boundaries \# Dominant tree species in stand \# Stand basal area \# Tree density \# Stand canopy cover \# Stand size class (dbh) \# Stand structure \# Stand height \# Understory presence \# Snag condition * Forest stand disturbances/changes \# Insect and disease occurrence \# Fire occurrence \# Harvest boundaries * Tree attributes \# Crown width \# Tree height \# Tree species * Nonforest vegetation \# Forage production \# Range condition \# Range cover type \# Vegetation height \# Vegetation density * Other land conditions \# Water bodies \# Water cources \# Snow \# Geologic landform \# Soil moisture \# Soil map units * Cultural Attributes \# Major highways \# Secondary roads \# Logging roads \# Jeep/hiking trails \# Automobiles \# Buildings/houses Lund and others cite a large number of attempts to combine multiple sources of remotely sensed data in multi-phase and multi-stage sampling designs. These include satellite imagery, moderate-resolution aerial photography, sampling with high-resolution aerial photography, and sub-sampling with field protocols. Unlike multi-phase designs, multi-stage sampling can accommodate different sizes of plots, each of which is engineered specifically to the capabilities and limitations of different measurement technologies. Progress was constrained by lack of statistical estimators that can assimilate multiple sources of data with different accuracies and different attributes in complex sampling designs. See http://www.citeulike.org/group/7954/article/4234314 for potential statistical approaches ---=note-separator=--- \% CONCLUSION: Use of, and demand for, remotely sensed data hasincreased substantially in forestry applications.Although digital imagery such as that obtained from airbornevideography and satellite systems is becoming popular for change detection and large area reconnaissance, aerial photographs remain the mainstay for most resource management activities. In order to meet the increasing information needs of resource managers, photographic interpretation, and other forms of remote sensing, as well as the related technologies of digital image processing, global positioning system, and GIS, will continually be depended upon to help manage and protect the forest resources. ---=note-separator=--- \% 11.5.1 FOREST INVENTORY RESOURCE inventories are accountings of goods on hand. Resource managers are interested in the kind, extent, and condition of the resource base. A goal of resource inventories is to collect the information that the manager requires at the least cost and to make the most use of the data once it is collected. Interpreters use aerial photographs in forest inventory (Lund, 1988) to • directly evaluate resource information such as vegetative type, crown width, area, tree heights, timber volume, land use class and distances between objects • classify and map such attributes as soil and vegetation type • define and coordinate areas of inventory and monitoring responsibility (i.e., separating forest land from nonforest land for timber inventories) • create sampling frames and sample units including mapped stands (for stand-level inventories) and photography points or field plots for extensive forest surveys • provide sources of information for pre- and post-stratification of sampled data • store or document information directly on the photographs (plot location, historical information, and miscellaneous observations) • illustrate reports and analyses • develop a base from which to monitor and update changes in land cover and land use • create aids for training, briefings and information transfer. Resource specialists use stratification and sampling to keep field costs to a minimum when inventorying large areas. In the simplest case, interpreters separate forested lands from nonforested lands and then collect data on the forested lands. In very large area inventories, multistage or multiphase sampling is used. In this situation, more information is extracted from aerial photographs. For management type inventories, stands may be delineated and interpretations of forest type, stand size, density, and age made from the aerial photographs and ancillary data. Such information, along with predicted tree volume, is stored in a database. In more complex inventories, data (such as interpreted forest type, tree height, crown diameter, canopy closure, aspect, and slope) are extracted from the aerial photographs of randomly or systematically selected areas. Later, field crews visit a subset of the sample units and collect additional information that cannot be interpreted from the photographs, such as tree diameter, basal area tree age, and site index. Regression or prediction equations are then developed to predict the field information from the aerial photographic information. These equations are applied to all interpreted areas within the inventory unit. If geographic coordinates of the field sample units are recorded and the interpreted data from the aerial photographs and the field samples then stored in a GIS, crude maps showing the predicted values can be generated (Lund and Thomas, 1989). Thus, by using information extracted from aerial photographs and some field samples, statistics and maps can be generated for the entire inventory unit at a low cost. Resource managers often have uses for two levels of inventory: those at the stand or project level (commonly called management, in-place, or intensive inventories) and those conducted over large areas such as a National Forest or state (often called forest surveyor extensive inventories). ---=note-separator=--- * 11.1 INTRODUCTION * 11.2 FOREST RESOURCE PHOTOGRAPHY. \# 11.2.1 Space Photography \# 11.2.2 Aerial Photography \# 11.2.2.1 Cameras, Formats, Films, and Filters \# 11.2.2.2 Time of Photography \# 11.2.2.3 Photographic Scale Selection * 11.3 VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION \# 11.3.1 Forest Type and Tree Species Identification \# 11.3.1.1 Texture \# 11.3.1.2 Tone and Color \# 11.3.1.3 Site \# 11.3.1.4 Sources of Interpretation Error \# 11.3.1.5 Photointerpretation Guides and Keys \# 11.3.1.6 Identification of Tropical Tree Species \# 11.3.2 Tree Size \# 11.3.3 Density * 11.4 TIMBER STAND DELINEATION AND MAPPING \# 11.4.1 What To Map \# 11.4.2 Stand Size \# 11.4.3 Selection of Photography \# 11.4.4 How to Start \# 11.4.4.1 Calculate Scale \# 11.4.4.2 Add Compartment and Ownership Boundaries \# 11.4.4.3 Tools of the Trade \# 11.4.4.4 Start From What Is Already Done \# 11.4.4.5 Do the Easy Part First \# 11.4.4.6 Cardinal Rule on Stand Differences \# 11.4.5 Transferring Features Between Photographs and Maps * 11.5 FORESTRY APPLICATIONS \# 11.5.1 Forest Inventory \# 11.5.1.1 Stand-Level Inventories \# 11.5.1.2 Forest Surveys \# 11.5.1.3 Future Needs * 11.5.2 Assessment of Insect and Disease Damage \# 11.5.2.1 Photographic Parameters \# 11.5.2.2 Applications \# 11.5.3 Recreation \# 11.5.3.1 Dispersed Recreation Trails \# 11.5.3.2 Vistas \# 11.5.3.3 Developed Facilities \# 11.5.3.4 River Corridor Analysis \# 11.5.3.5 Lake Analysis \# 11.5.4 Access Roads and Trails \# 11.5.5 Regeneration Surveys \# 11.5.6 Ecosystem Classification \# 11.5.7 Urban Forestry \# 11.5.8 Conclusion * 11.6 REFERENCES ---=note-separator=--- This chapter has an especially thorough section on 11.5.2 ASSESSMENT OF INSECT AND DISEASE DAMAGE. The following is the introduction to this 6 page section: \% Insects and disease cause extensive damage to forests. In the United States, millions of hectares are defoliated annually by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), western spruce budworm (C. occidentalis) or gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). Repeated defoliation causes growth loss, dieback of crowns, and tree mortality. Bark beetles, such as southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), or mountain pine beetle (D. pan• derosae) , can kill large numbers of conifers. \% Disease caused by root decay fungi, vascular fungi, rusts, or air pollution can also cause extensive fo\~{}t damage. Keeping forests healthy to reduce ecological, economic, and social impacts of insects and disease is an important element of sustainable forest management. Monitoring of insects, diseases, and their damage provides data needed to support decisions relative to the management of these sources of destruction. Damage caused by many forest insects and diseases is highly visible. This is especially true of those that cause tree mortality or foliar injury. Many pests of economic importance, such as bark beetles and defoliating insects fall into this category. Consequently systems to monitor insect and disease damage often include a remote sensing component. \% When definitive information on the status and impact of forest pests is required, aerial photographs are often used. They have been used since 1925, when entomologists tried to detect pines killed by bark beetles in California using oblique aerial photography. Subsequent research done by USDA Forest Service in Beltsville, Maryland; Portland, Oregon; and later Berkeley, California established many of the parameters for operational use of aerial photography for mapping and assessing damage caused by forest insects and disease. \% When aerial photographs are used to map or assess forest damage, several key points must be kept in mind. • Damage caused by insects and diseases is seasonal and dynamic. Unless historical data are desired, it is not possible to use archived photographs. Missions should be flown when damage is most visible. Damage caused by insects and diseases is most easily detected by a change of color in the forest canopy. Therefore color or CIR film must be used. • In many cases, the numbers of dead and dying trees or a classification of damage on individual trees are the primary data derived from aerial photographs. Therefore, resolution is of importance. Large- to medium-scale photographs have been most widely used; positive transparencies are preferred over prints because they offer higher resolution (Hoppus, 1990) and more latitude in analysis. }, edition = {Second}, editor = {Philipson, Warren R.}, howpublished = {689pp}, keywords = {rs\_review}, pages = {399--440}, posted-at = {2009-03-05 21:13:02}, priority = {2}, publisher = {American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing}, title = {Forestry}, url = {http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/32616}, year = {1997} }

TY - CHAP ID - citeulike:4139368 L3 - citeulike-article-id:4139368 N2 - Foresters and other resource managers have used aerial photographs to help manage resources since the late 1920s. As discussed in chapter 1, however, it was not until the mid-1940s that their use became common. Obtaining photographic coverage was always a problem. For many areas of the world, reasonably complete coverage did not exist until after World War II. In addition, aerial photographs were generally not used stereoscopically for forest applications or as bases for sampling frames until the 1950s although field application of stereoscopic techniques often preceded formal documentation by ten to fifteen years. After World War II, aerial photography was incorporated into the development of forest type maps, using the various plotters that had been used for military applications during the war. Initially, these type maps were often considered only as an ancillary management tool and were seldom used for broad-scale forest surveys. One early use of aerial photographs in forestry was to classify forest stands by attributes such as land classification (Aldrich, 1953), forest types (Sandor, 1955), and stand volume (Aldrich and Norick, 1969). Timber stratificatioIl: (Bickford, 1961; Moessner, 1963) and crown closure (Moessner, 1949) were important attributes used in estimating stand volumes. Aerial photographic interpretation guides (e.g., Avery, 1957) and training kits (e.g., Moessner, 1960) emerged for teaching new forest photointerpreters skills in forest management and inventories. Some of the more sophisticated skills included parallax displacement applications, such as the measurement of gradient (Moessner and Choate, 1964) and tree heights linked to aerial stand volume tables which provided estimates of stand volumes (Moessner, 1957; Allison and Breadon, 1960; Pope, 1961; Haack, 1963). Special studies of the use of low-oblique aerial photographs for forest inventories were also conducted (Anderson, 1956). This chapter reviews photographic interpretation in forestry, building on material presented in the background and basic chapters, especially chapter 5. After a brief look at the types of space and aerial photography that have been and are being employed in forestry, the discussion addresses forest classification, including type, species, size, and density; factors in stand delineation and mapping; and a variety of applications, including forest inventory, insect and disease damage assessment, recreation, roads and trails, regeneration surveys, ecosystem classification, and urban forestry AD - Bethesda, MD EP - 440 TI - Forestry PB - American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing T2 - Manual of Photographic Interpretation SP - 399 KW - rs_review N1 - From http://www.citeulike.org/group/7954/article/4035927: Lund and others (1997) provide a comprehensive review of aerial photography for forestry applications. The following attributes can be measured with varying degrees of success from aerial photography at the appropriate resolution and acquisition season. * Land cover # Forest v. nonforest # Existing vegetation * Forest stand conditions # Stand boundaries # Dominant tree species in stand # Stand basal area # Tree density # Stand canopy cover # Stand size class (dbh) # Stand structure # Stand height # Understory presence # Snag condition * Forest stand disturbances/changes # Insect and disease occurrence # Fire occurrence # Harvest boundaries * Tree attributes # Crown width # Tree height # Tree species * Nonforest vegetation # Forage production # Range condition # Range cover type # Vegetation height # Vegetation density * Other land conditions # Water bodies # Water cources # Snow # Geologic landform # Soil moisture # Soil map units * Cultural Attributes # Major highways # Secondary roads # Logging roads # Jeep/hiking trails # Automobiles # Buildings/houses Lund and others cite a large number of attempts to combine multiple sources of remotely sensed data in multi-phase and multi-stage sampling designs. These include satellite imagery, moderate-resolution aerial photography, sampling with high-resolution aerial photography, and sub-sampling with field protocols. Unlike multi-phase designs, multi-stage sampling can accommodate different sizes of plots, each of which is engineered specifically to the capabilities and limitations of different measurement technologies. Progress was constrained by lack of statistical estimators that can assimilate multiple sources of data with different accuracies and different attributes in complex sampling designs. See http://www.citeulike.org/group/7954/article/4234314 for potential statistical approaches N1 - % CONCLUSION: Use of, and demand for, remotely sensed data hasincreased substantially in forestry applications.Although digital imagery such as that obtained from airbornevideography and satellite systems is becoming popular for change detection and large area reconnaissance, aerial photographs remain the mainstay for most resource management activities. In order to meet the increasing information needs of resource managers, photographic interpretation, and other forms of remote sensing, as well as the related technologies of digital image processing, global positioning system, and GIS, will continually be depended upon to help manage and protect the forest resources. N1 - % 11.5.1 FOREST INVENTORY RESOURCE inventories are accountings of goods on hand. Resource managers are interested in the kind, extent, and condition of the resource base. A goal of resource inventories is to collect the information that the manager requires at the least cost and to make the most use of the data once it is collected. Interpreters use aerial photographs in forest inventory (Lund, 1988) to • directly evaluate resource information such as vegetative type, crown width, area, tree heights, timber volume, land use class and distances between objects • classify and map such attributes as soil and vegetation type • define and coordinate areas of inventory and monitoring responsibility (i.e., separating forest land from nonforest land for timber inventories) • create sampling frames and sample units including mapped stands (for stand-level inventories) and photography points or field plots for extensive forest surveys • provide sources of information for pre- and post-stratification of sampled data • store or document information directly on the photographs (plot location, historical information, and miscellaneous observations) • illustrate reports and analyses • develop a base from which to monitor and update changes in land cover and land use • create aids for training, briefings and information transfer. Resource specialists use stratification and sampling to keep field costs to a minimum when inventorying large areas. In the simplest case, interpreters separate forested lands from nonforested lands and then collect data on the forested lands. In very large area inventories, multistage or multiphase sampling is used. In this situation, more information is extracted from aerial photographs. For management type inventories, stands may be delineated and interpretations of forest type, stand size, density, and age made from the aerial photographs and ancillary data. Such information, along with predicted tree volume, is stored in a database. In more complex inventories, data (such as interpreted forest type, tree height, crown diameter, canopy closure, aspect, and slope) are extracted from the aerial photographs of randomly or systematically selected areas. Later, field crews visit a subset of the sample units and collect additional information that cannot be interpreted from the photographs, such as tree diameter, basal area tree age, and site index. Regression or prediction equations are then developed to predict the field information from the aerial photographic information. These equations are applied to all interpreted areas within the inventory unit. If geographic coordinates of the field sample units are recorded and the interpreted data from the aerial photographs and the field samples then stored in a GIS, crude maps showing the predicted values can be generated (Lund and Thomas, 1989). Thus, by using information extracted from aerial photographs and some field samples, statistics and maps can be generated for the entire inventory unit at a low cost. Resource managers often have uses for two levels of inventory: those at the stand or project level (commonly called management, in-place, or intensive inventories) and those conducted over large areas such as a National Forest or state (often called forest surveyor extensive inventories). N1 - * 11.1 INTRODUCTION * 11.2 FOREST RESOURCE PHOTOGRAPHY. # 11.2.1 Space Photography # 11.2.2 Aerial Photography # 11.2.2.1 Cameras, Formats, Films, and Filters # 11.2.2.2 Time of Photography # 11.2.2.3 Photographic Scale Selection * 11.3 VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION # 11.3.1 Forest Type and Tree Species Identification # 11.3.1.1 Texture # 11.3.1.2 Tone and Color # 11.3.1.3 Site # 11.3.1.4 Sources of Interpretation Error # 11.3.1.5 Photointerpretation Guides and Keys # 11.3.1.6 Identification of Tropical Tree Species # 11.3.2 Tree Size # 11.3.3 Density * 11.4 TIMBER STAND DELINEATION AND MAPPING # 11.4.1 What To Map # 11.4.2 Stand Size # 11.4.3 Selection of Photography # 11.4.4 How to Start # 11.4.4.1 Calculate Scale # 11.4.4.2 Add Compartment and Ownership Boundaries # 11.4.4.3 Tools of the Trade # 11.4.4.4 Start From What Is Already Done # 11.4.4.5 Do the Easy Part First # 11.4.4.6 Cardinal Rule on Stand Differences # 11.4.5 Transferring Features Between Photographs and Maps * 11.5 FORESTRY APPLICATIONS # 11.5.1 Forest Inventory # 11.5.1.1 Stand-Level Inventories # 11.5.1.2 Forest Surveys # 11.5.1.3 Future Needs * 11.5.2 Assessment of Insect and Disease Damage # 11.5.2.1 Photographic Parameters # 11.5.2.2 Applications # 11.5.3 Recreation # 11.5.3.1 Dispersed Recreation Trails # 11.5.3.2 Vistas # 11.5.3.3 Developed Facilities # 11.5.3.4 River Corridor Analysis # 11.5.3.5 Lake Analysis # 11.5.4 Access Roads and Trails # 11.5.5 Regeneration Surveys # 11.5.6 Ecosystem Classification # 11.5.7 Urban Forestry # 11.5.8 Conclusion * 11.6 REFERENCES N1 - This chapter has an especially thorough section on 11.5.2 ASSESSMENT OF INSECT AND DISEASE DAMAGE. The following is the introduction to this 6 page section: % Insects and disease cause extensive damage to forests. In the United States, millions of hectares are defoliated annually by spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana), western spruce budworm (C. occidentalis) or gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar). Repeated defoliation causes growth loss, dieback of crowns, and tree mortality. Bark beetles, such as southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis), or mountain pine beetle (D. pan• derosae) , can kill large numbers of conifers. % Disease caused by root decay fungi, vascular fungi, rusts, or air pollution can also cause extensive fo~t damage. Keeping forests healthy to reduce ecological, economic, and social impacts of insects and disease is an important element of sustainable forest management. Monitoring of insects, diseases, and their damage provides data needed to support decisions relative to the management of these sources of destruction. Damage caused by many forest insects and diseases is highly visible. This is especially true of those that cause tree mortality or foliar injury. Many pests of economic importance, such as bark beetles and defoliating insects fall into this category. Consequently systems to monitor insect and disease damage often include a remote sensing component. % When definitive information on the status and impact of forest pests is required, aerial photographs are often used. They have been used since 1925, when entomologists tried to detect pines killed by bark beetles in California using oblique aerial photography. Subsequent research done by USDA Forest Service in Beltsville, Maryland; Portland, Oregon; and later Berkeley, California established many of the parameters for operational use of aerial photography for mapping and assessing damage caused by forest insects and disease. % When aerial photographs are used to map or assess forest damage, several key points must be kept in mind. • Damage caused by insects and diseases is seasonal and dynamic. Unless historical data are desired, it is not possible to use archived photographs. Missions should be flown when damage is most visible. Damage caused by insects and diseases is most easily detected by a change of color in the forest canopy. Therefore color or CIR film must be used. • In many cases, the numbers of dead and dying trees or a classification of damage on individual trees are the primary data derived from aerial photographs. Therefore, resolution is of importance. Large- to medium-scale photographs have been most widely used; positive transparencies are preferred over prints because they offer higher resolution (Hoppus, 1990) and more latitude in analysis. AU - Lund, Gyde AU - Befort, William AU - Brickell, James AU - Ciesla, William AU - Collins, Elisabeth AU - Czaplewski, Raymond AU - Disperati, Attilio AU - Douglass, Robert AU - Dull, Charles AU - Greer, Jerry AU - Hershey, Rachel AU - Labau, Vernon AU - Lachowski, Henry AU - Murtha, Peter AU - Nowak, David AU - Roberts, Marc AU - Pierre AU - Singh, Ashbindu AU - Winterberger, Kenneth A2 - Philipson, Warren PY - 1997/// UR - http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/32616 ER -