Production, oxidation, emission and consumption of methane by soils: A review

Methane emission by soils results from antagonistic but correlated microbial activities. Methane is produced in the anaerobic zones of submerged soils by methanogens and is oxidised into CO2 by methanotrophs in the aerobic zones of wetland soils and in upland soils. Methanogens and methanotrophs are ubiquitous in soils where they remain viable under unfavourable conditions. Methane transfer from the soil to the atmosphere occurs mostly through the aerenchyma of aquatic plants, but also by diffusion and as bubbles escaping from wetland soils. Methane sources are mainly wetlands. However 60 to more than 90 % of CH4 produced in the anaerobic zones of wetlands is reoxidised in their aerobic zones (rhizosphere and oxidised soil-water interface). Methane consumption occurs in most soils and exhibits a broad range of values. Highest consumption rates or potentials are observed in soils where methanogenesis is or has been effective and where CH4 concentration is or has been much higher than in the atmosphere (ricefields, swamps, landfills, etc.). Aerobic soils consume atmospheric CH4 but their activities are very low and the micro-organisms involved are largely unknown. Methane emissions by cultivated or natural wetlands are expressed in mg CH4·m–2·h–1 with a median lower than 10 mg CH4·m–2·h–1. Methanotrophy in wetlands is most often expressed with the same unit. Methane oxidation by aerobic upland soils is rarely higher than 0.1 mg CH4·m–2·h–1. Forest soils are the most active, followed by grasslands and cultivated soils. Factors that favour CH4 emission from cultivated wetlands are mostly submersion and organic matter addition. Intermittent drainage and utilisation of the sulphate forms of N-fertilisers reduce CH4 emission. Methane oxidation potential of upland soils is reduced by cultivation, especially by ammonium N-fertiliser application.