Learning Information Literacy in the Library: A Short Course in Electronic Search Skills for Secondary Students Export

@article{citeulike:1224226, abstract = {Eleanor B. Howe is Librarian at Pine-Richland High School in Gibsonia, Pennsylvania, USA Email: ehowe@bellatlantic.net}, address = {http://www.iasl-slo.org/howe2001-learning.html}, author = {Howe, E. B.}, citeulike-article-id = {1224226}, citeulike-linkout-0 = {http://www.iasl-slo.org/howe2001-learning.html}, comment = {IASL NEWSLETTER October 2001 Learning Information Literacy in the Library: A Short Course in Electronic Search Skills for Secondary Students Eleanor B. Howe As librarians in schools, our basic goals are to contribute to student learning and to enable students to become independent users of libraries. We teach students how to "fish" (to search and select citations and resources), rather than bring them fish (citations and resources). Students today must become effective and efficient, intelligent and critical users of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs), and school librarians must contribute to student learning in this vital area. It is important, however, for us to know the why, what, when, where, and how of imparting these skills to our students. Why Teach Electronic Search Skills? Although many may tout the inherent ability of contemporary youth to use computers, research by university librarians in the United States has indicated that their students could not effectively use online catalogues and could not interpret the citations they retrieved. Other American studies have indicated that secondary and university students think they are better searchers than they really are, and that their skills do not improve over time with repeated use. The professional literature also indicates that systematic instruction is necessary to ensure that students know how they got their results and how to get better and fewer hits. What is the appropriate response of school librarians to this situation? Since information literacy depends on librarians at all levels, it is our responsibility to impart ICT skills. A short course or unit in electronic searching can, moreover, contribute to the missions of schools and school libraries. It can help deliver the secondary curriculum in several areas: computer literacy, research skills, information skills, and subject areas. Second, competent electronic searching develops students' cognitive skills across Bloom's taxonomy. Third, instruction in electronic searching can reinforce the ethical use of information in terms of plagiarism, copyright, academic traditions, and democratic values -- essential considerations in the electronic age. And finally, electronic searching is a necessary component of student life-long learning and ICT skills. What To Teach About Electronic Search Skills It is feasible to teach the concepts, process, and skills of electronic searching at the secondary level. Students at this age are in Piaget's abstract level of cognitive development and can understand and apply concepts. Establishing a standard process of searching is important so that students may apply it to the variety of software, occasions, and libraries they encounter. I developed and used the following Seven Steps in response to problems that students encountered as they searched: Step 1: Select a research topic and generate related search terms Step 2: Select an appropriate database for the topic and type of resource needed Step 3: Develop search strategies and statements Step 4: Retrieve and evaluate the results of the search Step 5: Modify the search to improve the results Step 6: Evaluate the citations retrieved and select resources to be consulted Step 7: Cite and evaluate the resources consulted When students use these Seven Steps they will develop knowledge of their topic and available resources, use higher order thinking skills, and utilize a variety of search strategies and statements in order to retrieve the most appropriate resources and information for their topic. Such instruction also builds the basic information skills needed by students in both high school and university. Research by university librarians has shown that their students often lack these skills. Students should also learn specific electronic search skills such as the ability to select and use specific search strategies and statements in a variety of electronic indexes and full-text software, including the Internet. It would not be wise to focus your instruction on the mechanics, however, since they will likely change soon anyway and students will learn it as they use it. It is better to focus your instruction on what is more permanent: the concepts, process, and skills of electronic searching. When To Teach Electronic Search Skills It is advisable to teach students the correct procedure and use of a resource when it is first available for their use. Incorrect assumptions and bad habits may arise when use precedes instruction, and replacing bad habits with good ones requires at least twice the effort from both you and your students. School librarians should therefore teach electronic search skills to students the first year they arrive in a secondary school so that they are aware of, and can improve their use of, those resources throughout their years in that school. The other major question concerns systematic versus point-of-use instruction. Point-of-use instruction may not be as possible or as necessary at the high school level as in the elementary school for three reasons. Since most secondary school librarians find that subject area teachers are reluctant to donate much time from their classes for information skills, a separate course may be the only way to deliver systematic instruction in search skills at the secondary level. Secondly, young adults are moving into the abstract level of cognition and should be more capable than younger students of retaining their learning and applying it later. And finally, it is important that all students need these skills, not just those whose teachers may bring them to the library for resource-based learning projects. Such a course would cover only the basics of electronic searching on the resources available in your school library. Students can develop more sophisticated search skills through point-of-use instruction when they come to the school library later for research in classes or as individuals. Where To Teach Electronic Search Skills The course should be taught in a classroom with a workstation for each student so that each can have their choice of research topic as well as multiple experiences at the keyboard for both reinforcement of skills and exposure to a variety of software. Students can help each other, however, when they generate search terms and search statements. How To Teach Electronic Search Skills 1. Use developmentally appropriate software and resources. 2. Use developmentally appropriate pedagogical practices, including modeling and practice (Hunter) and scaffolding (Vygotsky). 3. Ensure that the course includes the full range of thinking skills in Bloom's taxonomy: * Knowledge. Students can gain new knowledge of age-appropriate resources and information as well as electronic skills. * Comprehension. You should check for comprehension of student learning through observation of students at the keyboard, completion of worksheets, printouts from searches, and written reviews or tests. * Application. Students should apply each concept, step in the search process, and skill the same day on an appropriate electronic resource. Present another concept and skill the next day and have students practice it on a different resource. In this way students apply their new information skills on a variety of software throughout the search process. * Analysis. Ensure that your students use analytical thinking skills by requiring them to define a topic and generate related, broader, and narrower search terms and to use appropriate search strategies and statements. The use of subject searches requires students to analyze their topic, and the use of Boolean operators is based on logic. * Evaluation. Evaluation is an especially important skill in electronic searching. Students should learn to evaluate the results of their searches and then to modify them in order to improve the results. They should be able to evaluate citations in order to select those best suited to their topic. Students should be able to evaluate the authority of websites and information they have retrieved on the Internet. These evaluations should be included in daily assignments. Finally, the students can evaluate or reflect on what they learned in the course about both electronic searching and their research topic. * Synthesis. Students who write an annotated bibliography synthesize the information in a given resource into a summary, and those who write a research report synthesize the information found in all resources into a meaningful and well-organized text. 4. Provide timely daily practice at the keyboard related to the concepts, Seven Steps and skills presented. 5. Prefer individual to group learning. 6. Integrate the searching and reading into the curriculum by allowing students their choice of research topics related to one of their courses. Students should select a topic they are currently studying, and this choice may improve their interest and motivation. It also offers an opportunity for collaboration with subject area teachers who can both let you know a range of topics appropriate for their course and grade the content of the final product. 7. Assess student learning. You can assess student learning by both the process and products of their searching. Students can record their daily process in a workbook. The product can be an annotated bibliography or a research report supported by footnotes. The grades for a short course in electronic search skills can count as a unit of a course in computer literacy, library skills, or research skills. Students submit two packets of materials for assessment by the librarian: * The Search Report, which contains workbook pages for searches with reflections, review/test, and printouts of search results (citation lists). * The Research Report, which contains workbook pages for the bibliography/paper, reflection, notes from a book, and full-text copies of articles and website selected. It may be forwarded to the teacher of the related course for grading on the content. 8. Present an orderly progression of concepts, process, and skills in a syllabus and workbook. A Syllabus A syllabus encourages you to prioritize what is important for students to learn and to organize your instruction in a meaningful way. It should state the goals and objectives of the course. Rationale/Goals: The purpose of this course is for students to develop both the conceptual framework and the specific skills needed to search effectively the on-line catalogue, periodicals indexes, full-text databases, and Internet resources available in the library school library. The concepts, processes, and skills mastered in this course will enable students to find resources for other courses across the curriculum and can be applied in other libraries. Educational Objectives: At the end of a course in electronic search skills students will be able to: * abide by the principles of the ethical use of information * understand the structure and functions of indexes, access points, and databases * utilize steps in the search and research processes * search indexes, catalogues, databases, and the Internet for resources and information in periodicals, books, a full-text database, and websites * prepare an annotated bibliography of the resources consulted * use electronic search skills for other courses and in other libraries. A workbook gives your students an outline of the course content and provides them with a worksheet for each Step in the process of searching. To encourage critical thinking, each workbook page should state the goal and have a reflection that is an open-ended evaluative question on the work done that day. Your instruction should focus on the Seven Steps in the search process with daily presentation of a few related concepts and skills followed by students applying them on appropriate software. Following are ten daily topics for a two-week unit in the process of electronic searching: Day 1 Introduction Objectives and organization of the course. Information concepts: index, access points and database. The Seven Steps in the electronic search process. Ethical use of information. Step 1: Select topic and generate related search terms. Day 2 Search strategies and statements (apply on a periodicals index). Step 2: Select an appropriate database for the topic and type of resource needed. Step 3: Develop search strategies (subject, keyword) and statements (subcategories, Boolean operators). Day 3 Evaluation and modification of search statements to improve yield (apply on an index or database with a summary field). Step 4: Retrieve and evaluate the results of the search (recall, precision ratio). Step 5: Modify the search to improve the results (relevance and size). Day 4 Evaluation and selection of citations (citation elements and database fields). Step 6: Evaluate the citations retrieved and select resources to be consulted. Day 5 Searching online catalogues (distinguish from searching periodicals indexes). Day 6 Locating and using resources in the school library (one resource from each index). Day 7 Writing a bibliography with abstracts. Step 7: Cite and evaluate the resources consulted. Day 8 Searching, evaluation and selection of academically valuable Internet resources (category search, standard selection criteria). Day 9 Review/test and writing the bibliography/paper. Day 10 Compiling the Search Report and Research Report. Conclusion Teaching a short course in the process of electronic searching offers students an opportunity to learn and improve their use of not only the specific information technologies available in your school library but also the more general information skills they will need and can use in other courses and libraries as well as in university. Such a course will also develop their cognitive skills and add to their knowledge of the content areas. Planning the course offers you an opportunity for collaboration with teachers. With all these benefits, even a short course should be part of your library program and information skills curriculum. Bibliography Ala, J. \& Cerabona, K. (1992). Boolean searches -- a life skill. School Library Journal, 38(11), 42. Allen, G. (1990). CD-ROM training: What do the patrons want? RQ, 30(1), 88-93. American Association of School Librarians and Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1998). Information power: Guidelines for school library media programs. Chicago: American Library Association. Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: David McKay. Bush, R.B. \& Wells, M.R. (1990). Bibliographic instruction for honors students: The University of Buffalo experience. Research Strategies, 8(3), 137-143. Coupe, J. (1993). Undergraduate library skills: Two surveys at Johns Hopkins University. Research Strategies, 11(4), 188-201. Dennis, N. \& Stadthaus, A. (1991). Teaching information technologies in a classroom setting. Computers in Libraries, 11(Jan), 17-19. Elkind, D. (1994). A sympathetic understanding of the child: Birth to sixteen (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Fox, L. \& Weston, L. (1993). Course-integrated instruction for nursing students: How effective? Research Strategies, 11(2), 89-99. George, M. (1988). What do college librarians want freshmen to know? My wish list. Research Strategies, 6(4), 189. Gorman, M. (1995). The domino effect, or why literacy depends on all libraries. School Library Journal, 41(4), 27-29. Greer, A., Weston, L. \& Alm, M. (1991). Assessment of learning outcomes: A measure of progress in library literacy. College \& Research Libraries, 52, 549-557. Harris, R.M. (1992). Bibliographic instruction: The views of academic, special, and public librarians. College \& Research Libraries, 53, 249-256. Henson, K.T. (1993). Methods and strategies for teaching in secondary and middle schools (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. Howe, E.B. (1997). Using student surveys to build and evaluate an information skills program. School Libraries Worldwide, 3(2), 68-77. Howe, E.B. (1998). Integrating information technology into and across the curriculum: A short course for secondary students. Knowledge Quest: Journal of the American Association of School Librarians, 26(2): 32-40. Jacobson, F.F. \& Jacobson, M.J. (1993). Representative cognitive learning theories and BI: A case study of end user searching. Research Strategies, 11, 124-137. Kenny, R.F. \& Schroeder, E. (1992). An evaluation of a training and assistance program for the CD-ROM databases: Reflections on the process. Reference Services Review, 20(2), 41-48. Martin, R.P. (1995). Integrating library computer skills into a credit course. Association of College and Research Libraries. National Conference, Pittsburgh, PA. Nash, S. \& Wilson, M.C. (1991). Value-added bibliographic instruction: Teaching students to find the right citations. Reference Services Review, 19(1), 87-93. Scott, J., Trimble, J.A. \& Fallon, L. (1995). "@\&!\#@ this computer and the horse it rode in on": Patron frustration and failure at the OPAC. Association of College and Research Libraries. National Conference, Pittsburgh, PA. Tallman, J. \& Henderson, L. (1997). Mental models and teaching effects of the library-media specialist and teacher-librarian in one-on-one instructional interactions using electronic database resources. American Association of School Librarians. National Conference, Portland, OR. Woolfolk, A.E. \& McCune-Nicolich, L. (1984). Educational psychology for teachers. (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The Author: }, howpublished = {Web}, journal = {IASL Newsletter}, keywords = {fox-citation, information-literacy}, month = {October}, posted-at = {2007-04-13 15:52:06}, priority = {2}, title = {Learning Information Literacy in the Library: A Short Course in Electronic Search Skills for Secondary Students}, url = {http://www.iasl-slo.org/howe2001-learning.html}, year = {2001} }

TY - JOUR ID - citeulike:1224226 L3 - citeulike-article-id:1224226 N2 - Eleanor B. Howe is Librarian at Pine-Richland High School in Gibsonia, Pennsylvania, USA Email: ehowe@bellatlantic.net JF - IASL Newsletter AD - http://www.iasl-slo.org/howe2001-learning.html TI - Learning Information Literacy in the Library: A Short Course in Electronic Search Skills for Secondary Students KW - fox-citation KW - information-literacy N1 - IASL NEWSLETTER October 2001 Learning Information Literacy in the Library: A Short Course in Electronic Search Skills for Secondary Students Eleanor B. Howe As librarians in schools, our basic goals are to contribute to student learning and to enable students to become independent users of libraries. We teach students how to "fish" (to search and select citations and resources), rather than bring them fish (citations and resources). Students today must become effective and efficient, intelligent and critical users of the new information and communication technologies (ICTs), and school librarians must contribute to student learning in this vital area. It is important, however, for us to know the why, what, when, where, and how of imparting these skills to our students. Why Teach Electronic Search Skills? Although many may tout the inherent ability of contemporary youth to use computers, research by university librarians in the United States has indicated that their students could not effectively use online catalogues and could not interpret the citations they retrieved. Other American studies have indicated that secondary and university students think they are better searchers than they really are, and that their skills do not improve over time with repeated use. The professional literature also indicates that systematic instruction is necessary to ensure that students know how they got their results and how to get better and fewer hits. What is the appropriate response of school librarians to this situation? Since information literacy depends on librarians at all levels, it is our responsibility to impart ICT skills. A short course or unit in electronic searching can, moreover, contribute to the missions of schools and school libraries. It can help deliver the secondary curriculum in several areas: computer literacy, research skills, information skills, and subject areas. Second, competent electronic searching develops students' cognitive skills across Bloom's taxonomy. Third, instruction in electronic searching can reinforce the ethical use of information in terms of plagiarism, copyright, academic traditions, and democratic values -- essential considerations in the electronic age. And finally, electronic searching is a necessary component of student life-long learning and ICT skills. What To Teach About Electronic Search Skills It is feasible to teach the concepts, process, and skills of electronic searching at the secondary level. Students at this age are in Piaget's abstract level of cognitive development and can understand and apply concepts. Establishing a standard process of searching is important so that students may apply it to the variety of software, occasions, and libraries they encounter. I developed and used the following Seven Steps in response to problems that students encountered as they searched: Step 1: Select a research topic and generate related search terms Step 2: Select an appropriate database for the topic and type of resource needed Step 3: Develop search strategies and statements Step 4: Retrieve and evaluate the results of the search Step 5: Modify the search to improve the results Step 6: Evaluate the citations retrieved and select resources to be consulted Step 7: Cite and evaluate the resources consulted When students use these Seven Steps they will develop knowledge of their topic and available resources, use higher order thinking skills, and utilize a variety of search strategies and statements in order to retrieve the most appropriate resources and information for their topic. Such instruction also builds the basic information skills needed by students in both high school and university. Research by university librarians has shown that their students often lack these skills. Students should also learn specific electronic search skills such as the ability to select and use specific search strategies and statements in a variety of electronic indexes and full-text software, including the Internet. It would not be wise to focus your instruction on the mechanics, however, since they will likely change soon anyway and students will learn it as they use it. It is better to focus your instruction on what is more permanent: the concepts, process, and skills of electronic searching. When To Teach Electronic Search Skills It is advisable to teach students the correct procedure and use of a resource when it is first available for their use. Incorrect assumptions and bad habits may arise when use precedes instruction, and replacing bad habits with good ones requires at least twice the effort from both you and your students. School librarians should therefore teach electronic search skills to students the first year they arrive in a secondary school so that they are aware of, and can improve their use of, those resources throughout their years in that school. The other major question concerns systematic versus point-of-use instruction. Point-of-use instruction may not be as possible or as necessary at the high school level as in the elementary school for three reasons. Since most secondary school librarians find that subject area teachers are reluctant to donate much time from their classes for information skills, a separate course may be the only way to deliver systematic instruction in search skills at the secondary level. Secondly, young adults are moving into the abstract level of cognition and should be more capable than younger students of retaining their learning and applying it later. And finally, it is important that all students need these skills, not just those whose teachers may bring them to the library for resource-based learning projects. Such a course would cover only the basics of electronic searching on the resources available in your school library. Students can develop more sophisticated search skills through point-of-use instruction when they come to the school library later for research in classes or as individuals. Where To Teach Electronic Search Skills The course should be taught in a classroom with a workstation for each student so that each can have their choice of research topic as well as multiple experiences at the keyboard for both reinforcement of skills and exposure to a variety of software. Students can help each other, however, when they generate search terms and search statements. How To Teach Electronic Search Skills 1. Use developmentally appropriate software and resources. 2. Use developmentally appropriate pedagogical practices, including modeling and practice (Hunter) and scaffolding (Vygotsky). 3. Ensure that the course includes the full range of thinking skills in Bloom's taxonomy: * Knowledge. Students can gain new knowledge of age-appropriate resources and information as well as electronic skills. * Comprehension. You should check for comprehension of student learning through observation of students at the keyboard, completion of worksheets, printouts from searches, and written reviews or tests. * Application. Students should apply each concept, step in the search process, and skill the same day on an appropriate electronic resource. Present another concept and skill the next day and have students practice it on a different resource. In this way students apply their new information skills on a variety of software throughout the search process. * Analysis. Ensure that your students use analytical thinking skills by requiring them to define a topic and generate related, broader, and narrower search terms and to use appropriate search strategies and statements. The use of subject searches requires students to analyze their topic, and the use of Boolean operators is based on logic. * Evaluation. Evaluation is an especially important skill in electronic searching. Students should learn to evaluate the results of their searches and then to modify them in order to improve the results. They should be able to evaluate citations in order to select those best suited to their topic. Students should be able to evaluate the authority of websites and information they have retrieved on the Internet. These evaluations should be included in daily assignments. Finally, the students can evaluate or reflect on what they learned in the course about both electronic searching and their research topic. * Synthesis. Students who write an annotated bibliography synthesize the information in a given resource into a summary, and those who write a research report synthesize the information found in all resources into a meaningful and well-organized text. 4. Provide timely daily practice at the keyboard related to the concepts, Seven Steps and skills presented. 5. Prefer individual to group learning. 6. Integrate the searching and reading into the curriculum by allowing students their choice of research topics related to one of their courses. Students should select a topic they are currently studying, and this choice may improve their interest and motivation. It also offers an opportunity for collaboration with subject area teachers who can both let you know a range of topics appropriate for their course and grade the content of the final product. 7. Assess student learning. You can assess student learning by both the process and products of their searching. Students can record their daily process in a workbook. The product can be an annotated bibliography or a research report supported by footnotes. The grades for a short course in electronic search skills can count as a unit of a course in computer literacy, library skills, or research skills. Students submit two packets of materials for assessment by the librarian: * The Search Report, which contains workbook pages for searches with reflections, review/test, and printouts of search results (citation lists). * The Research Report, which contains workbook pages for the bibliography/paper, reflection, notes from a book, and full-text copies of articles and website selected. It may be forwarded to the teacher of the related course for grading on the content. 8. Present an orderly progression of concepts, process, and skills in a syllabus and workbook. A Syllabus A syllabus encourages you to prioritize what is important for students to learn and to organize your instruction in a meaningful way. It should state the goals and objectives of the course. Rationale/Goals: The purpose of this course is for students to develop both the conceptual framework and the specific skills needed to search effectively the on-line catalogue, periodicals indexes, full-text databases, and Internet resources available in the library school library. The concepts, processes, and skills mastered in this course will enable students to find resources for other courses across the curriculum and can be applied in other libraries. Educational Objectives: At the end of a course in electronic search skills students will be able to: * abide by the principles of the ethical use of information * understand the structure and functions of indexes, access points, and databases * utilize steps in the search and research processes * search indexes, catalogues, databases, and the Internet for resources and information in periodicals, books, a full-text database, and websites * prepare an annotated bibliography of the resources consulted * use electronic search skills for other courses and in other libraries. A workbook gives your students an outline of the course content and provides them with a worksheet for each Step in the process of searching. To encourage critical thinking, each workbook page should state the goal and have a reflection that is an open-ended evaluative question on the work done that day. Your instruction should focus on the Seven Steps in the search process with daily presentation of a few related concepts and skills followed by students applying them on appropriate software. Following are ten daily topics for a two-week unit in the process of electronic searching: Day 1 Introduction Objectives and organization of the course. Information concepts: index, access points and database. The Seven Steps in the electronic search process. Ethical use of information. Step 1: Select topic and generate related search terms. Day 2 Search strategies and statements (apply on a periodicals index). Step 2: Select an appropriate database for the topic and type of resource needed. Step 3: Develop search strategies (subject, keyword) and statements (subcategories, Boolean operators). Day 3 Evaluation and modification of search statements to improve yield (apply on an index or database with a summary field). Step 4: Retrieve and evaluate the results of the search (recall, precision ratio). Step 5: Modify the search to improve the results (relevance and size). Day 4 Evaluation and selection of citations (citation elements and database fields). Step 6: Evaluate the citations retrieved and select resources to be consulted. Day 5 Searching online catalogues (distinguish from searching periodicals indexes). Day 6 Locating and using resources in the school library (one resource from each index). Day 7 Writing a bibliography with abstracts. Step 7: Cite and evaluate the resources consulted. Day 8 Searching, evaluation and selection of academically valuable Internet resources (category search, standard selection criteria). Day 9 Review/test and writing the bibliography/paper. Day 10 Compiling the Search Report and Research Report. Conclusion Teaching a short course in the process of electronic searching offers students an opportunity to learn and improve their use of not only the specific information technologies available in your school library but also the more general information skills they will need and can use in other courses and libraries as well as in university. Such a course will also develop their cognitive skills and add to their knowledge of the content areas. Planning the course offers you an opportunity for collaboration with teachers. With all these benefits, even a short course should be part of your library program and information skills curriculum. Bibliography Ala, J. & Cerabona, K. (1992). Boolean searches -- a life skill. School Library Journal, 38(11), 42. Allen, G. (1990). CD-ROM training: What do the patrons want? RQ, 30(1), 88-93. American Association of School Librarians and Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1998). Information power: Guidelines for school library media programs. Chicago: American Library Association. Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: David McKay. Bush, R.B. & Wells, M.R. (1990). Bibliographic instruction for honors students: The University of Buffalo experience. Research Strategies, 8(3), 137-143. Coupe, J. (1993). Undergraduate library skills: Two surveys at Johns Hopkins University. Research Strategies, 11(4), 188-201. Dennis, N. & Stadthaus, A. (1991). Teaching information technologies in a classroom setting. Computers in Libraries, 11(Jan), 17-19. Elkind, D. (1994). A sympathetic understanding of the child: Birth to sixteen (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Fox, L. & Weston, L. (1993). Course-integrated instruction for nursing students: How effective? Research Strategies, 11(2), 89-99. George, M. (1988). What do college librarians want freshmen to know? My wish list. Research Strategies, 6(4), 189. Gorman, M. (1995). The domino effect, or why literacy depends on all libraries. School Library Journal, 41(4), 27-29. Greer, A., Weston, L. & Alm, M. (1991). Assessment of learning outcomes: A measure of progress in library literacy. College & Research Libraries, 52, 549-557. Harris, R.M. (1992). Bibliographic instruction: The views of academic, special, and public librarians. College & Research Libraries, 53, 249-256. Henson, K.T. (1993). Methods and strategies for teaching in secondary and middle schools (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. Howe, E.B. (1997). Using student surveys to build and evaluate an information skills program. School Libraries Worldwide, 3(2), 68-77. Howe, E.B. (1998). Integrating information technology into and across the curriculum: A short course for secondary students. Knowledge Quest: Journal of the American Association of School Librarians, 26(2): 32-40. Jacobson, F.F. & Jacobson, M.J. (1993). Representative cognitive learning theories and BI: A case study of end user searching. Research Strategies, 11, 124-137. Kenny, R.F. & Schroeder, E. (1992). An evaluation of a training and assistance program for the CD-ROM databases: Reflections on the process. Reference Services Review, 20(2), 41-48. Martin, R.P. (1995). Integrating library computer skills into a credit course. Association of College and Research Libraries. National Conference, Pittsburgh, PA. Nash, S. & Wilson, M.C. (1991). Value-added bibliographic instruction: Teaching students to find the right citations. Reference Services Review, 19(1), 87-93. Scott, J., Trimble, J.A. & Fallon, L. (1995). "@&!#@ this computer and the horse it rode in on": Patron frustration and failure at the OPAC. Association of College and Research Libraries. National Conference, Pittsburgh, PA. Tallman, J. & Henderson, L. (1997). Mental models and teaching effects of the library-media specialist and teacher-librarian in one-on-one instructional interactions using electronic database resources. American Association of School Librarians. National Conference, Portland, OR. Woolfolk, A.E. & McCune-Nicolich, L. (1984). Educational psychology for teachers. (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. The Author: AU - Howe, EB PY - 2001/10// UR - http://www.iasl-slo.org/howe2001-learning.html ER -